SEMANTIK EXERCISE

1.What parts does a prototype computer have? Do those parts have parts?

Answer : prototype computer has monitor, keyboard, CPU, and Mouse. The other part like CPU has a part also like Hardisk, RAM, and CD-RO Drive.

2.The top of a thing is one of its sides : the side that is uppermost. The bottom of a thing is one of its sides: the side that is down. The front is one of the sides : the side that faces forwards. The back is one of its sides, the side that faces away from the front.
What sense relations hold between the words side, top, bottom, front and back? Give reasons to support your answer.

Answer : If the statement is accepted as a reasonable reflection of a competent user of English’s knowledge of meaning, then side is a superordinate for top, bottom, front and back. The statement names the latter four as different kinds of side, and the relation of incompatibility holds between these four hyponyms of side. The “definitions” that follow each colon in the statement consist of the superordinate (side) and a modifier (for example, ‘that is down’), which is the pattern for hyponym meanings. The different modifiers of side are what make the four hyponyms incompatible.

3.Parent is a superordinate for mother and father. At the level immediately below parent there are only those two hyponyms. What is the semantic relation between mother and father ? Is it incompatibility or antonymy? Justify your answer.

Answer: mother and father are incompatible. This is my mother entails This is not my father; This is my father entails This is not my mother; however, we donot get entailments from the negative sentences to the affirmativeones, for example someone who is not my mother need not be myfather, but could be my aunt or cousin or a passing stranger. The term antonymy is reserved for incompatibility between pairs of adjectivesor adverbs; mother and father are nouns.

4.for class discussion. The following words are hyponyms of footwear: shoes, sneakers, trainers, sandals, slippers, boots, and galoshes.
a. Is footwear the superordinate that you use for all of the hyponyms or do you use the word shoe in a general sense that we might distinguish as shoe 1, as the superordinate? (After all, the kind of shop that could sell all of them is a shoe shop.)
b. Find as many other hyponyms of footwear (or shoe ) as you can.
c. Draw up a hyponym hierarchy, for the given words and any additional ones you have found.
d. Try to provide a brief characterisation of the meaning of each word in the hierarchy, in the form of its immediate superordinate plus a modifying phrase.

Answer : Some initial ideas: (a) “We don’t sell marshmallows here; this is a
SHOE shop” would be a memorable objection, but it feels like one that respects the meaning of the word shoe. On the other hand, the following objection would strike me as peculiar in meaning: “?We don’t sell sandals here; this is a SHOE shop.” And it would be just as strange with slippers or boots substituted for sandals.(b) (c) and, in single quotes, (d). Draw an upside down tree with shoes1 (or footwear) ‘clothing for the feet, having a sole’ as the overall superordinate.On three branches below it, put shoes2 ‘footwear covering justthe feet’, boots ‘footwear covering feet and ankles, at least’ and sandals‘ventilated footwear’. Hyponyms dangling from branches below shoes2include clogs ‘wooden shoes’, trainers and sneakers. (Sneakers and trainersare a synonym pair. It should not be hard to supply a concise meaning‘shoes2 for …’). Hyponyms below boots include football boots ‘boots forfootball’ and gumboots. If you know the word, then jandals‘waterproofminimal sandals’ is a hyponym of sandals. (Jandalsis a New Zealand English word for what many Australians call thongs, which are shower shoes or flip flops to English speakers in some other places.) Galoshes andslippers are some other words to include.

3. In February 2016 a minister government minister announced the resignation of a senior civil servant in his department. According to one report, it was only from listening to the radio on his way back to work from a hospital appointment that the civil servant heard about his own alleged resignation. This led to a question in the media: ?Who is going to be resigned next? (The question mark at the beginning marks the sentence as semantically odd.) The civil servant eventually resigned in May 2016. Resigning is supposed to be a conscious act performed by the person who quits the post, but if, in talking about the situation described, someone had used the expression ?The minister resigned the civil servant, would the sentence have been causative? Would it have the same meaning as The minister made the civil servant resign?

Answer: Talking about the situation after the civil servant’s resignation – more than two months later – the sentence?The minister resigned the civilservant might be taken as causative, if a correct understanding of it is: ‘an action by the minister directly caused the civil servant to resign’.This situation could be described by the two-clause formulation Theminister made (the civil servant resign), because this covers both directand indirect causation. However, coming so much later it seems morelikely that, if it was the minister’s announcement in February thatcaused the civil servant to resign in May, the causation was indirect. Ifso, a one-clause sentence ?The minister resigned the civil servant wouldnot be an appropriate way to talk about it, because one-clausecausatives encode direct causation. Back in February 2002, ?Who is going to be resigned next? was probably not a question meaning ‘Who willbe made to resign next?’, but rather a way of catching people’s attentionwith the ill-formedness of the question as a way of getting themto think about the meaning of the word resign and, from there, toconsider the minister’s apparent high-handedness.

4. Classify the following as achievements, states, activities or accomplishments: (a) The kid was having a tantrum. (b) The band had a makeover. (c) I caught a cold. (d) Part of the Louvre resembles a pyramid. (e) The music stopped. (f) He got the joke the second time. (g) Khalid played the violin.
 (a) Activity. (b) Accomplishment. (c) Achievement. (d) State. (e)Achievement

Answe: when talking about a single stop, because the following is not an acceptable way of expressing ‘The music waned but continued’: *The music stopped stopping; also because restitutive again works straightforwardly. The music was stopping is unacceptable unless we interpret this as habitual (meaning ‘the music kept stopping’; see Chapter 6) or if it is said with reference to a scheduled stop. On the habitual interpretation, The music stopped is an activity. (f) Achievement. (g) Activity. Yes, the violin is a definite direct object, but not one that delimits the activity: Khalid played the violin does not encode a situation in which he plays until the violin is “finished” (compare Khalidplayed the sonata).

5.Ministry of Education and Culture told the Indonesian government that they had saved many million of rupiahs because schools were developing. Think of the sentence in italics as part of a newspaper report (and note that the pronoun they refers to the Indonesian government). Identify the combinations of tense and aspect used in the sentence and draw a diagram to represent the relative timing of the events. Position ‘time of report’ on a time line. Then indicate the positions when ministry of education and culture told the Indonesian government something, when the government saved many millions of rupiahs and when schools developed.

Answer: The verb told is past simple; had saved is past perfect; were developing is past progressive.

6.Think about possible interpretations of the modality in the five sentences below. Can they be understood as deontic, epistemic, both or neither? Give a reason for each answer.
-They must be made from buckwheat.
-We must get up early tomorrow.
-The email needn’t have been sent.
-I can hear you now.
-They might or might not make it.
-You better apologise.

Answer: They must be made from buckwheat can be either deontic (a demand or
strong recommendation that buckwheat be used) or epistemic
(speaker infers from evidence – colour or taste, perhaps – that buckwheat
is an ingredient). We must get up early tomorrow is deontic. What might happen tomorrow is too uncertain to justify epistemic must. The email needn’t have been sent can bear either interpretation: deonticallythat there was no demand for the sending of the email; epistemicallythat it is possible that the email has not yet been sent. I can hear you now indicates “capability” (mentioned towards the end of Section 7.1.3): sound level, transmission and reception conditions mean that what is coming from you is now being heard. Some semanticists take this sort of modality as similar to deontic: physics and physiology allow something to happen (paralleling the way an authority’s permission allows something to happen). Others would classify it as dynamic modality (also mentioned in Section 7.1.3). A pointer to the example being an unusual use is the possibility of removing the modal without affecting the meaning much: I hear you now is a paraphrase of I can hear you now. Although it is possible to use might to report permission having been given, Biber et al. (1999: 491) found that almost all instances of mightin their large samples of conversational and academic English were epistemic. A deontic interpretation of They might or might not make it is somewhat implausible because it is hard to imagine permission being given for people to succeed or not succeed.
You better apologise is deontic. This is a reduced form of You had better…or You’d better… The idiom had better is not used to express epistemic modality; see Huddleston and Pullum (2002: 196). (One of the reasons for calling this an idiom is that, despite containing the form had, it is not used to talk about the past.)

7. in terms of relative scope, can’t P means ‘not (possibly P)’, deontically as well as epistemically. The same holds for cannot P. What about may not (or mayn’t, if this reduced form is acceptable to you)? They may not have an invitation can be understood either deontically (‘I forbid them having an invitation’) or epistemically (‘Perhaps they do not have an invitation’). What is the scope of negation relative to the scope of modality for these two interpretations?

Answer: Deontic may not is similar to can’t: negation has wider scope: ‘not (possibly (they have an invitation))’. However, epistemic may not (see Example (7.28c)) behaves like mustn’t: modality has wider scope: ‘possibly (not (they have an invitation))’. For the comparison of relative scope, it does not matter that may is represented as ‘possibly’, using the same word as was used for can in Example (7.28b). The meanings of mayand can share the notion of possibility, the ‘negative ruled out’part of their core meanings in Table 7.1.

8. few corgis are vegetarian is true provided the proportion of vegetarian corgis is small, in comparison to the number who are nonvegetarian. However,few is an ambiguous quantifier. It can also serve as a cardinal quantifier, as when someone who has been asked whether there are many boats in the harbour replies: “No, there are few boats there today”. If possible, write the set theoretic specification for this sentence’s truth conditions. If that is too hard, explain in words the meaning of few when it is a cardinal quantifier.

Answer: In example (7.30c) in the chapter, few was introduced as a proportional quantifier: Few corgis are vegetarian is true provided the proportion of vegetarian corgis is small, in comparison to the number who are nonvegetarian. However, few is an ambiguous quantifier. It can also serve as a cardinal quantifier, as when someone who has been asked whether there are many boats in the harbour replies: “No, there are few boats there today”. If possible, write the set theoretic specification for this sentence’s truth conditions. If that is too hard, explain in words the meaning of fewwhen it is a cardinal quantifier.

10. Pseudo-clefts can be inverted, for example The hammer was what hit the floor. What hit the floor was the hammer. Is the presupposition the same or different? (Hint: start by trying to find a proposition that is both entailed by The hammer was what hit the floor and implicated by The hammer wasn’t what hit the floor That is to say: find out what it presupposes.)

Answer: The presuppositions are the same for a pseudo-cleft and for an inverted pseudo-cleft. The given example presupposes ‘Something hit the floor’.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Languages, Dialects, and Varieties
Hudson and Ferguson said variety is a specific set of ‘linguistic items’ or ‘human speech such as presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features, etc. which we can uniquely associate with some external factor (presumably, a geographical area or a social group).

Language and Dialect
Language and ethnicity are virtually synonymous (Coulmas, 1999). Indonesian people will be surprised if they find someone who does not from Indonesian but they can speak Indonesian. Sometimes they pronounce the word different from Indonesian people and the way they talk is also different it’s called dialect.

Regional Dialects
The differences of dialect that happens because of the regional or place. For instance: lampungnese people who live in Lampung mostly said: geh, tah, lorang, kitaorang. It’s different with sundanese people who live in bandung. They do not said that word but they have their own dialect like: atuh, teh, mah. Each regional has different dialect.

Social Dialects
The differences of dialect that happens because of having different social status. For instance: people who work as a doctors have their own word when they communicate with their friends that have the same jobs. It’s the same with people who work as a office boy. they will have their own way in communicate also.

Styles, Registers, and Beliefs
Speakers can implement different styles of speaking. You can speak very formally or very informally, your choice being governed by circumstances. Job ceremonial almost invariably require very formal speech, public lectures is less formal, casual conversation quite informal, and conversations between friends may be extremely informal and casual.

Registers are sets of language items related with discrete occupational or social groups. Surgeons, airline pilots, bank managers, sales clerks, jazz fans, and pimps employ different registers. People participating in regular communication situations tend to develop similar vocabularies, similar features of intonation, and characteristic bits of syntax and phonology that they use in these situations.’ This kind of variety is a register.

What people believe about true or not the languages that we speak. that is beliefs.

Pidgins and Creoles

A language that was made by people who come from different country and speak different languages and they tried to communicate each other with a language that they made by themselves and that language is called pidgin. For example: Japanese, Korean and Indonesian people live together and they make “X” language that they made by themselves for communicate. The “X” language that they made is pidgin.

The nativization of pidgin Is called creol. Creol do not have native speaker because it’s a pidgin. For example: the “X” language that they made before is becoming a native language.

Codes
it is possible to refer to a language or a variety of a language as a code. The term is useful because it is neutral.

Bilingualism and Multilingualism
People who can speak one language it called monolingualism for example:lampungnese  people only can speak lampung language. When they can speak 2 languages it called bilingualism for instance: sundanese people can speak both sunda and Indonesian languages. For people who can speak more than 2 languages is called multilingualism for example: tukano men should marry women outside their place. It means all women in their have different languages. when they have children their children will speak their parents languages and when they meet their friends they will learn another languages. that is the reason that makes them can speak many languages.

Code-Switching
When people can speak more 2 languages they have 2 different grammars. When they speak one language that grammar will active and another grammar of another language will deactivate. When they speak both languages they switch from one language to another language it called code switching.

Language variation
Regional Variation
A variation of language that happen because of different location. Every place or region have different variation in language.

 The Linguistics Variable
A linguistic variable is a linguistic item which has identifiable variants. For example, words like singing and fishing are sometimes pronounced as and fishin’. The final sound in these words may be called the linguistic variable (ng) with its two variants [(] in singing and [n] in singin’.

Change
The Traditional View
as a result, over a period of time a distinction between two sounds may be misplaced in a language, for example the vowels of meet and meat or horse and hoarse. They have similar dialect. Otherwise, a distinction may be gained where there was none before, as in a house with an [s] but to house with a [z]. In each of these case a single phonological unit became two: there was a structural split. So we can find instances of phonemic coalescence, situations in which a contrast existed at one time but later was lost, and instances of phonemic split, situations in which there was no contrast at one time but a contrast developed.

Ethnographies
The Ethnography of Speaking
An ethnography of a communicative event is a description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular communicative event achieves its objectives. For convenience, Hymes uses the word SPEAKING as an acronym for the various factors.
S = setting and scene. Setting refers to the place of speech. They can change the scene also for example from serious to joyful.
P = participants. include various combinations of speaker–listener,addressor–addressee, or sender–receiver.
E = ends. For instance, a marriage ceremony serves a certain social end, but each of the various participants may have his or her own unique goals in getting married or in seeing a particular couple married.
A = acts sequence. It refers to how people do the act when speaking: the precise words used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at hand.
K = key. It refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message that speaker said : light-hearted, serious, precise, pedantic, mocking, sarcastic, pompous, and so on
I = instrumentalities. it refers to the choice of type of act, for example: oral, written, or telegraphic, and to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code, or register that is chosen.
N = norms of interaction and interpretation.it refers to the specific behaviors and properties that attach when people speak and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them, for example: loudness, silence, gaze return, and so on.
G = genre.it refers to clearly demarcated types of utterance; such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lectures, and editorials.

Solidarity and Politeness
Tu and Vous
Tu and vous have the same meaning it is “you”. Singular you “To” is use when we speak to our friend in informal talks. Plural you “vous” is use when we speak to people older than us or to stranger in formal talks.

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

THE NATURE OF LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE

■ The Universality of Human Language

Languages are similar in their function and organization. Every human language has a grammar. Furthermore, the organization in all human languages both of lexicons and the formal properties of grammatical systems are similar . This is what psycholinguists mean by the statement that language is universal.

■ Phonotactic constraints

Phonotactic constraints are really constraints on the way syllables can be created in a particular language. A syllable is a group of sounds which must contain a nucleus (usually a vowel), and may have an onset (one or more syllable-initial consonants) and a coda (one or more syllablefinal consonants). Together, the nucleus and the coda are the syllable’s rhyme.

THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF LANGUAGE

Psycholinguistics is a concerned with how language is represented and processed in the brain. on language as a system controlled by the brain that is different from but closely linked to general cognition.

■ Language Is Species Specific

Language is one of the most important component to communicate and to convey messages between individuals, we can simplify that every species has a communication system. There is no other species that use language communication system to communicate like human. There are many research was made to find if the animals can communicate using language. For example: Lana a chimpanzee that can operate the computer. There are three key with a word that written in there, please, machine give and water. When she wants to drink she knows that she should press water key. Even she can do that things, its does not mean she understand the word. It can be because of she knows when she press that key she will get water as a reward

■ Language Is Universal in Humans.        

All human babies are born with an innate capacity to learn language. It genetically prepared to organized linguistics information. Human’s ability to acquire and use language is as natural as a fish’s ability to swim. Language does not need to be taught. Children are acquiring language naturally.

■ Children Everywhere Acquire Language on a Similar Developmental Schedule

Children acquire language in the same age. It’s the same with baby roll over, sit up, crawl, and walk at similar ages everywhere. When they are acquiring language, they made the same mistake like an un grammatically sentences and the pronunciations. Most researchers agree that the optimal period for first language acquisition is before the early teen years,

■ Language Development Is Triggered by the Environment

On of the factors that affect human’s ability in acquire language is environment. Children will not develop language if language is not accessible in their environment or nobody is there to interact with them. How people acquire language is based on the environment. For example: a baby that was born from Indonesian parents lives in Japan. The environment helps the baby to acquire Japanese language. He hear Japanese language everyday from people around him and it makes him can speak Japanese well. That is the evidence that environment is helpful in acquire language.

■ Anatomical and Physiological Correlates for Language

Gall in eighteen century believed that musical ability, morality, and language ability is in different place in our brain. It’s proved by Broca’s research. Aphasia is a disease that happened in the place that processing language inside our brain.

The Acquisition of Language

 This picture is shows how we process the language. Starting from getting an input and then the signal is going to LAD and it becomes a grammar and lexicon.

Children around the world acquire language in different cultural and social settings, so it should not come as a surprise that many caregivers are not necessary features of the linguistic environment. In cultures where information about the language comes from people other than caretakers information must be conveyed in an interactive setting. But children do not need to be rewarded, or encouraged to imitate the language around them, or corrected when they produce an error, and caregivers do not need to alter the way they speak to guarantee successful language acquisition.

There are some stage of age in acquire language.

■ From before birth to 12 months

Werker’s have found that infants aged 6 to 8 months can differentiate speech sounds that are not phonemic in their language. For instance, Japanese infants can discriminate /r/ versus /l/ as well as English-speaking adults can, although Japanese adults find this distinction very difficult. In the next 6 months the baby start babbling and it consist consonant and vowel sounds.

■ From 12 to 24 months

In this step infants can say their first word. When the children can speak 50 vocabularies, they

start combine the words together to make sentences

Metalinguistic awareness

this skill is important for children because it’s related with an early reading habits from the children. When they read a book that is make them aware about the phonological terms. For example: when they read a “cat” word from the book they know that cat is consist of 3 alphabets.

The ability to detect an ambiguous word is one of the matalinguistic skill. The last is children awareness to ungrammatical sentences.

THE SPEAKER: PRODUCING SPEECH

it start with an idea for a message to the  a process of lexical selection. The capsule-like figures represent lexical items for the words girl, dog, and pet, activated based on the intended meaning for the message. The tree diagram in the center represents the sentence’s syntactic form. The phonetic transcription to the right represents the sentence’s eventual phonological form, sent on to the articulatory system, which produces the corresponding speech signal.

■ Production in bilinguals and second language learners

People who can speak 2 languages have two language-specific grammars. When they speak in one language the grammar and lexical unit of that language will be active and the other languages will not active. When they speak 2 languages, lexical unit and grammars from both languages will active. It is possible for the speakers to speak both languages in the same time. When the speaker switches from one language to another language it’s called code switching.

■ Coarticulation

The most important psycholinguistic aspect of speech production is the phenomenon of coarticulation. Coarticulation means that the articulators are always performing motions for more than one speech sound at a time. it tell use how to pronoun the words well so, there is no different perspective.

THE HEARER: SPEECH PERCEPTION AND LEXICAL ACCESS

 It begins with the hearer when decoding the sentence the girl pets the dog. The speech signal on the far right, perceived by the auditory system, serves to recover the phonological form for the sentence, indicated by the phonetic transcription. The tree diagram on the left represents the sentence’s syntactic form, used to decode the meaning of the sentence. The light bulb indicates that the hearer has successfully recovered the idea the speaker intended to convey.

■ Constructive speech perception and phonological illusions

One of the speech perception systems is constructive. This means that the speech perception system takes information from anywhere. it can find information to construct a linguistic percept of the acoustic signal.

■ Bottom-up and top-down information

When you hear the information clearly it called bottom-up information. For example: your friends said “don’t forget to buy 2 boxes of milks and 4 cheese bread”. You can hear the voice clearly and you know what to buy because you get the information clearly. When you do not get the information clearly it called top-down information. For example: the situations in your house is noisy because your friends play a music hardly and your friends said “don’t forget to buy 2 boxes of milks and 4 cheese bread”. Because of the noisy it makes you do not get the information clearly. Maybe you just hear the word “boxes”, ”milk”, ”or 2 boxes of bread”.

■ Bound morphemes

There are inflectional morphemes, like the –s that attached to nouns to make them plural (book/books) or the –ed that attached to verbs to make them past tense (play/played). There are derivational morphemes, that can change the meaning of a word, and sometimes the grammatical class of the word as well. For instance, the suffix –er can be attached to a verb, changing it into a noun meaning a person who performs the activity of that verb (bike/biker).

THE HEARER: STRUCTURAL PROCESSING

■ Prosody

Prosody is the intonation of a sentence. Intonational boundaries are signaled by :

·         Pitch excursions like:rises or falls,.

·         Fluctuations in duration (a word has a longer duration at the end of an  intonational phrase than when it appears in the middle of an intonational phrase),

·         and pauses.

SEMANTICS

1.               STUDYING MEANING

There are two main branches in studying meaning, semantic and pragmatic

·                     Semantic is the real meaning of the word.

E.g. “could you please give me that book?”. Book here means the real meaning of the book. It’s a thing that we can read.

·                     Pragmatics is another meaning from a word.

E.g.  “Right arm”

Right arms here have two different meaning. First is the real meaning of right arm is part of body. The second meaning is someone that we trust to do something.

1.1              Utterances and Sentences

·                     Utterances are interpreted in contexts; there is a context in utterances.

·                     Sentences are interpreted abstract, there is no context in sentences

The differences between utterances and sentences is when you are using a word with meaning and there is no context to think, it’s mean you are doing semantics, but if there is a context to be brought into consideration when you are saying, it’s mean you are doing pragmatics. Pragmatics is the study of utterance meaning. And semantics is the study of sentence meaning and word meaning.

There are three distinguishable stages. Literal meaning, explicature and implicature

“This bag was limited edition”

©                  Literal meaning: someone who said this sentence mean that this bag was made in limited edition. The speaker means the real meaning of the sentence.

©                  Explicature: there are several interpretation from this utterance based on what people know. Firstly Mela asked Ime “is your bag expensive?” and Ime responds “this bag is limited edition”. It can be interpreted that the bag is expensive because the bag was limited edition. Even ime did not say that it was expensive.

©                  Implicature: when ime said that “this bas was limited edition” there is a background that make her said that utterance. We go to get further information about this utterance. For example, the relationship between Ime and Mela. It can be that conversation happened between friends or it happened between seller and buyer.

1.2              Entailments

Entailment is the principle that under certain conditions the truth of one statement makes sure the truth of a second statement. "For example," he says, "the performative sentence 'I beg you to help me open this box' illocutionary entails the imperative sentence 'Please, help me open this box!' and truth conditionally entails the declarative sentence 'You can help me open this box'". Another example:

·                     The performance was excellent ⇒ The performance was very good

·                     Jimmy has arrived in Jakarta ⇒ Jimmy is not in Bali

·                     Jimmy has arrived in Jakarta ⇒ Jimmy went to Jakarta

2.               ADJECTIVE MEANING

2.1              Synonym

Synonymy is equivalence of sense. For example, Father/daddy/dad/ there are synonym. This is the example of synonym in semantic:

a. Ailee is a nice girl.

b. Ailee is a good girl.

c. (2.2a ⇒2.2b) & (2.2b ⇒2.2a)

d. *Ailee is a nice girl but she isn’t a good girl.

e. *Ailee is a good girl but she isn’t a nice girl.

The word nice and good here is a synonym, so ( a⇒b) and (b⇒a). you can not said like (D and E) because the meaning is the same so, you can not make the word become like that.

2.2  Antonyms

The term antonym is the word that has opposite meaning, for instance clean and dirty.

a. The street was clean.

b. The street was dirty.

c. (2.2a ⇒NOT2.2b) & (2.2b ⇒NOT2.2a)

d. (NOT2.2a ⇒2.2b) & (NOT 2.2b ⇒2.2a)

The word has different or opposite meaning that’s why “the street was clean ⇒ the street was not dirty” is true. It can not be “the street was clean ⇒ the street was dirty” because the word clean and dirty have opposite meaning so, it’s not entailments.

3.               NOUN VOCABULARY

3.1              The has-relation

The part of a thing is called prototype. For example:

·                     A prototype tree has root.

·                     A prototype tree has leaf.

·                     A prototype tree has a fruit.

·                     A prototype tree has a flower.

3.2              Hyponymy

For example,  handphone is one kind of gadget, and a tablet and a i-pad are other kinds of gadget. The pattern of entailment that defines hyponymy is :

a. he is playing handphone.

b. he is playing gadget.     

c. (3.8a ⇒   3.8b) & (3.8b ⇒   3.8a)

handphone is hyponym from gadget so, playing handphone ⇒   playing gadget but, playing gadget ⇒   playing handphone. It’s because of gadget is superordinate of handphone. Palaying gadget doesn’t mean he is playing handphone. It can be he is playing tablet so, it’s not entailments.

3.3              Incompatibility

Handphone, tablet and I-pad are hyponym of gadget and the differences between that hyponym is called Incompatibility. Handphone is different with tablet so that is incompatibility.

4.                VERBS AND SITUATIONS

There is achievement and accomplishment when we are talking about situation types.

a. She got car accident. (Achievement)

b. She had a sprained ankle. (State)

c. She had chemotherapy. (Activity)

d. She got better. (Accomplishment)

she got car accident here is achievement because there is a transition from healthy to sick and it can not be stopped. It’s strange to stop the car accident. She got better here is an accomplishment because there the transition. Activity is the process when you want to get something (achievement).  When an unwell person gets better (an accomplishment), there is a phase of healing or taking medicine or whatever (an activity) which culminates in a transition from ill to well (an achievement), and immediately after that the person is in good health (a state).

5.               TENSE AND ASPECT

·                     Tense: to locate events in time. it’s about the time and some kind of the tense are: past tense, present and future tense

·                     Aspect: it has relation to the time of speaking or writing, and about grammatical signals regarding the sender’s notions of how an event is distributed in time. when we use past tense, it’s mean that we said something that happen in the past time.

6.               MODALITY, SCOPE AND QUANTFICATION

Modality is the term for a cluster of meanings focused on the notions of Necessity and possibility.

a. You must submit it.

b. You have to submit it.

c. You mustn’t submit it.

d. You don’t have to submit it.

Must and have to here had different meaning. When it uses must it’s mean you should submitted the task but, when you said “you don’t have to submit it” it’s mean you can submitted the task or not. The main carriers of modality are a set of auxiliary verbs called

Modals: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must and ought to.

·                     Epistemic interpretations have to do with knowledge and understanding. Its mean when we want to said something it based on our knowledge or understanding. For instance:

a. Isco went by bus.

b. Isco probably went by bus.

The speaker can said “isco probably went by bus” because of his understanding. Maybe he knows that Isco always go to somewhere using bus so, he can say that he is probably went by bus.